q
q Spains II Republic and fascism growing as dissidence
q Robert L. Vann
q William H. Hastie
q Eugene Kinckle Jones
q Mary McLeod Bethune and the National Council of Negro Women
q Robert C. Weaver.
q Mayor Fiorello H. LaGuardia appointed a study commission which was headed by the noted black sociologist E. Franklin Frazier. The commission concluded that the causes of the riot were rooted in resentment against racial discrimination and poverty. (Harlem, NY,1937)
q []the idealism of the new Negro was still based on the American ideal of democracy, and his goal wasstill to share fully, some day, in American life and institutions.The Afro-American's heightened sense of racial consciousness was not an end in itself. This racial self-consciousness gave himstrength to withstand the daily injustices which confronted him,and it provided him with faith in himself and hope in the future.
q The racialdiscrimination and injustice from which Afro-Americans suffered,though deeply entrenched in national institutions, were themselvesa contradiction to the American democratic philosophy. The Afro-American, besides having justice on his side, was comfortedknowing that his goals were sanctioned and hallowed by the nation'sideals.
q .[]James Johnson described theHarlem of the 1920s as the "culture capitol of the Negro world."Its magnetism attracted Negroes from all across America, from theWest Indies and even some from Africa itself. inge. Rather, he insisted that it was oneof the "most beautiful and healthful sections of the city."
q About 1890, thecommunity shifted its focus northward into the 20's and low 30's[]the city'sAfro-American community was developing a small middle class ofits own, and it contained its own fashionable clubs and nightlife. Visiting Negro entertainers from across the country usuallyperformed at and resided in the Marshall Hotel. The "MemphisStudents", probably the first professional jazz band to tour thecountry, played at the Marshall.
q Shortly after 1900, Negroesbegan to move to Harlem.[]At first, whites did not notice. However, when Negroes spreadwest of Lenox Avenue, white resistance stiffened. []In turn, the Negroesresponded by forming the Afro-American Realty Company, and theytoo bought out apartment buildings, evicted the white tenants,and rented the apartments to Negroes[] When one was able to buy a piece ofproperty, regardless of how prosperous or orderly he mightappear, local whites viewed it as an invasion, panicked, andmoved out in droves. This left the banks, still unwilling to sellto Negroes, holding a large number of deserted properties.[]At the same time, jobs became harder to obtain.[]
q As Harlem grew, downtown financiersbecame increasingly aware that money could be made there. In the1930s, in contrast to Johnson's optimistic vision, Adam ClaytonPowell, Jr. and others pointed out that almost all the stores on125th Street, the major shopping district, were owned by whitesand that they employed whites almost exclusively. Harlem soonbecame a center for both crime and exploitation[..].
q Civil War Spain: exile, emigration, mass media in Caribbean, Latin America and influences in future socio - cultural development
q As American industry began to gear up for war production at the beginning of the Second World War, it needed to find new sources of labor. The Afro-American community was eager to support the war effort,particularly because it meant fighting Hitler's racism. [] menial positions regardless of their skill and training. It became clear that racism had to be fought at home and abroad
q Francos Dictatorship
q Ideology
q Destruction Free Press
q Censorship and Dissidence
q Hitlers dismemberment of Czechoslovakia (September, 1938)
q In 1938, in Gaines v. Canada, the Supreme Court declared thatMissouri's failure to admit a Negro, Lloyd Gaines, to the statelaw school, when the state did not have a comparable "separatebut equal" institution for Negroes, constituted a violation ofthe "equal-protection" clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.Missouri wanted to solve the problem by paying the student'stuition in an integrated Northern law school, but the Courtrefused to accept that as a solution. It argued that the statehad already created a privilege for whites which it was denyingto Negroes. This, in itself, was a Constitutional violation.A decade passed without any further action.
q In 1948, the SupremeCourt attacked Oklahoma for its failure to permit a Negro toenroll in its state law school. The Oklahoma Board of Regents,then, decided to admit Negroes to any course of study notprovided for by the state college for Negroes. This was aconsiderable step forward.
q In 1950, in Sweatt v. Painter, the Supreme Court condemned anattempt by the state of Texas to establish a special law schoolovernight in which it could enroll a Negro applicant. The Courtsaid that this fly-by-night institution was not equal, and itinsisted that an equal institution must include equal faculty,equal library, and equal prestige. It argued that part of anequal degree was the prestige conferred on the graduate by thestatus of that institution. To be equal, the Court reasoned, theseparate school must carry an equal degree of professionalstatus. It also decided, in McLaurin v. Oklahama Regents, thatit was unconstitutional for a university to segregate a Negrostudent within its premises. Oklahoma had roped off part of itsuniversity's classrooms, library, and dining room as a means ofaccommodating a graduate student in the School of Education.
q At this point, theN.A.A.C.P. was not certain whether to push on for totaldesegregation or whether temporarily to settle for qualityeducation. However, the stubbornness of some Southern schoolboards in refusing to upgrade Negro schools forced the N.A.A.C.P.lawyers into their decision to make an outright attack on legalsegregation.In 1950 N.A.A.C.P. lawyers initiated a series of suits around thecountry attacking the quality of education in primary andsecondary schools. Three of these suits--Topeka, Kansas, ClarendonCounty, South Carolina, and Prince Edward County, Virginia--became involved in the 1954 Supreme Court desegregation decision..
q Though the Supreme Court had allowed the decision madein Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 to stand, the Court was movingcloser to a reexamination of the "separatebut equal" clause.That decision had argued that separate facilities, if they wereequal, did not violate a citizen's right to equal protectionunder the law. It had become the cornerstone on which a wholedual society had been built.
q .On May 17, 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education of the City ofTopeka, the Supreme Court declared that school segregation wasunconstitutional and that the "separate but equal" doctrine,which the Court itself had maintained for half a century, wasalso unconstitutional.
q Therefore,segregation with the sanction of law deprived the child of equaleducation, and the Court concluded that it was a violation of the"equal-protection" clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.Southern whites were outraged, and they dubbed May 17 as"Black Monday." Ninety Southern Congressmen issued the"Southern Manifesto" condemning the Court decision as ausurpation of state powers.
q The Ku KluxKlan was revived along with a host of new groups such as theNational Associationfor the Advancement of White People. TheWhite Citizens' councils spearheaded the resistance movement.Various forms of violence and intimidation became common. Bombings,beatings, and murders increased sharply all across theSouth. Outspoken proponents of desegregation were harassed inother ways as well. They lost their jobs, their banks called intheir mortgages, and creditors of all kinds came to collect theirdebts.In 1955 the Supreme Court declared that its desegregationdecision should be carried out "with all deliberate speed.
q Again, the constitutional questionof federal vs. state authority had come to a head just as it hada century earlier.In 1957, the governor of Arkansas openly opposed a courtdecision ordering the integration of the Central HighSchool in Little Rock. When federal marshals were sent tocarry out the order, Little Rock citizens were in no mood tostand idly by and watch. Both the citizens and the localofficials were united in opposing federal authority. Everyonewatched to see what President Eisenhower would do in the face ofthis challenge. On the one hand, Eisenhower and the Republicanshad condemned the increasing centralization of power in thefederal government. On the other hand, Eisenhower had been ageneral who had been accustomed to having his subordinates carryout his orders. Eisenhower, the general, moved with decisivenessand sent troops into Little Rock to enforce the law. AlthoughEisenhower himself had said that men's hearts could not bechanged by legislation, he diligently fulfilled his functions asthe head of the Executive Branch of the government. Surprisinglyenough, it was also under his administration that Congresspassed the first Civil Rights Act since 1875.
q It cannot be stated with certainty that these events were merelycalculated responses to the changing world situation, but theCold War and the emergence of an independent Africa werenevertheless realities which could not be overlooked.
q Although many Southernwhites continued to insist that their freedom to maintain aseparate society apart from that of the blacks was an essentialpart of democracy as they understood it, most Americans foundlegal segregation to be embarrassing in the face of America'sclaim to the democratic leadership of the world. Afro-Americansexploited the situation in order to involve the FederalGovernment in their desegregation campaign.
q Almost immediately, the call for a black boycott of Montgomery buses spread throughout the community, andcar pools were quickly organized to help people in getting to andfrom their employment. Whites refused to believe that the blackcommunity could eitherorganize or sustain such a campaign.Nevertheless,Montgomery buses were running half empty and all white.
q The man chosen : Martin Luther King, Jr. King had become a national hero.[]His philosophy had beeninfluenced by the writings of Henry Thoreau and Mahatma Gandhiwith the result that he developed an ideology of nonviolent resistance. Like Gandhi, King wanted to make clear thatnonviolence was not the same as nonresistance. Both maintained that if it should come to a choice between submission and violence, violence was to be preferred. Both stressed that nonviolent resistance was not to be an excuse for cowardice. []
q King believed in nonviolent resistance both as a tactic and as aphilosophy--both as means and end:[]
q King made it clear that nonviolent resistance was concerned withmorality and justice and not merely with obtaining specificgoals. When laws, themselves, were unjust, nonviolent resistancecould engage in civil disobedience as a means of challengingthose laws. Civil disobedience was not to be understood merely aslaw-breaking. Instead, King said that it was based in a belief inlaw and also in a belief in the necessity to obey the law.[]
1960 Presidential election approached, both
political parties had become aware that the racial issue could
not be ignored. []by that year, over
a million Afro-Americans had become eligible to vote in the
Southern states. John F. Kennedy, the Democratic candidate,
easily out-maneuvered his Republican opponent, Richard M. Nixon,
in the search for Afro-American votes. Kennedy had projected an
image of aggressive idealism which captured the imagination of
white liberals and of Afro-Americans.
q
q II World War (1939-1945)
q Racial riots occurred at Fort Bragg,
q Racial riots Camp Robinson,
q Camp Davis,
q Camp Lee,
q Fort Dix
q American base in Australia.
q Jews Holocaust (1938-1945)
q France: Fascism and Collaborationism Vs. Anti-fascism and Resistance
q President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 which forbade further discrimination either in government services or defense industries, on the grounds of race, creed, or nationality. While some discrimination still continued, the order and the Fair Employment Practices Commission, which resulted from it, played an important role in opening large numbers of new jobs to the Afro-American community (june,25,1941)
q Plan for The Negro March on Washington Movement (1942)
q Detroits riot riot (June 20, 1943)
q Mauricio Baez and Sugar Cane Workers Movement
q Hiroshima Nagasaki Holocaust (1945)
q Afro-Americans viewed the war both with more enthusiasm and with more pessimism than they had felt at theoutbreak of the First World War. On the one hand, they couldeagerly support a war to defeat Hitler's racist doctrines. Onthe other hand, they did not believe that any display ofpatriotism on their part would significantly diminish racism athome. [For them, the war would still be a doublestruggle-fighting racism at home as well as abroad.[]Unfortunately for the Afro-American,most of the new jobs were not open to them.
q .[]Afro-Americans hurriedto the enlistment centers to volunteer their services in the waragainst Hitler's philosophy. [] The factthat Negroes were confined to the more menial positions in thearmed forces was what irritated Afro-Americans the most. TheNegro army units were obviously going to be led by whiteofficers. The Marine Corps was still not accepting any Negroes inits ranks at all. Negrounits, as well as individual Negro soldiers, made outstandingcontributions to the war effort both in Europe and in thePacific, and they received numerous commendations and citationsSkeptics noted, however, that not a single Negro soldier hadreceived the Congressional Medal of Honor in either the First orSecond World Wars, and they suggested that the nation's highestaward was being reserved for whites.[
q In particular, they were irritated by the fact thatGerman prisoners of war were permitted to eat with whiteAmerican soldiers in the same dining car on a railroad traintraveling through the South, while Negro soldiers could not.Racial riots occurred at Fort Bragg, Camp Robinson, Camp Davis,Camp Lee, Fort Dix, and a notorious one at an American base inAustralia. The policy of the War Department was to gloss overthese events.
q []Another factor whichirritated Afro-Americans was that the Red Cross blood banksseparated Negro and white blood.[i].
q Yalta Agreement and origins from New Global Order (1945).
q Ho Chi Ming: Declaration of Independence of Republic of Vietnam (September, 2, 1945)
q Baby Boomers (1945-1980) and relaunching: ecologic causes; corporative responsibilities in community development & anti-war movement.
q A current genesis for Tobins generation, as cross-cultural, trans - generational, dialogic, cooperative and multinational efforts for global peace, sustainable development, and human rights, within multilateral system reformed at XXI century.
q League for Non-Violent Civil Disobedience Against Military Segregation (1947)
q Prejudices: Immigration, Panoptism, Civil Rights Vs. Police- State. Some views to Technologic roles (1940-1991)
q James Forrestal Speech into Senate Commission and born National Security first vision: inside-outside (1945)
q National Liberations Movements: postcolonial hope for builds democracies at South. (1945-1991)
q Republican Party win Congress Majority (USA, 1946)
q League for Non-Violent Civil Disobedience Against Military Segregation (1947)
q Creation CIA: a partial vision pre and post Cold War and human rights in foreign countries ( 1947-1995)
q Rosa Parks, and riots in Montgomery, Alabama (December 1, 1955, )
q 4,6 millions workers into their Unions, strikes for best salaries, 48 hours/work week: 115 millions of day/man loosed (1948)[ii]
q Turn to ultra right and military race & arsenals into US federal budget (1950-1953): [] military budget for FY 1950 had accounted for less that one third for government expenditures and less than 5% for GNP, by FY 53 that budget represent more than 60 per cent of government outlays, and more than 12 per cent of GNP (21)
q Cointelpro -FBI and silence for dissidents thought (1956-1971)
q Non Alineated Countries and Global Weapons Control for Peace policies (1954-2001)
q Public Law 280 (PL280, 1954)
q Postcolonial Efforts
q National Reconstructions: Post Colonial Powers or Transition to Democracy post dictatorship (1945-1996)
q Small and weak states define security narrowly; large and powerful define broadly. Security, them, its a reflexion about nations (or at least into nations ellites) (STEEL, Ronald: The meaning of Security, 1996)
q Civil Wars
q Reforms and Modernization
q United Nations Foundation.
q The San Francisco Conference which founded the United Nationsorganization was looked upon by peoples around the world as thesunrise of a new day of peace and brotherhood. []Colored peoples and other minoritiesaround the worldobserved the San Francisco Conference with hopemixed with caution..[]
Its very initials signifiedthat the peoples of the world were to be one people boundtogether in brotherhood, freedom, and equality. This should havemeant the end of imperialistic exploitation as well as the end ofminority persecution. [].
q Bretton Woods Agreement
q Nuremberg Trial
q Soviet Union and Third World Policies
[i] MOODS, N : ibid,pp 119-127
[ii] JABLONSKY, David: op. cit., p. 8
